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THE “SONOUROUS
VOICE”
OF NELLA ANFUSO
or
HOW TO EXPRESS THESE CONCEPTS IN MUSIC
by
Renzo Cresti
The idea of a “sonorous voice” is
resumed by Giulio Caccini (even though the term “sonorous”
we find before and after him) and means that the voice must
become pure sound, through the total use of the
upper resonance, just as following the historic truth Nella
Anfuso is able to do; being a profound expert that she is,
understands well the neo-platonic aesthetics of the Italian
Humanism that connects the expression of sound to that of
concepts, together with the affections.
The Italian song is therefore the phonetic
amplification of the phonemes, that is of the word and this
determines the peculiar characteristics of the sound that
is: pure, clear, aerial, rounded,
homogeneous, rich (with harmonics), easy
(without forcing), extensive (three octaves), natural
(not unnatural or artificial), sweet and virtuoso.
The poetic-musical song from a
humanistic point of view, that develops in the North-east of
Italy between the second half of the XV century and beginning of
the next one and formed in Florence Rome and Venice, enjoys a
central texture medium-grave that implies a
particularly refined emission; it is necessary “portar la
voce” in a way that the resonance is very pure
resulting in a perfect equilibrium between the register of the
chest and the head voice. So we can obtain the
three octaves and therefore, a sole register (that
for the texture can be distinct in contralto and
soprano), a uniform extension that the singers of
this period performed naturally, basing themselves always on the
sound of the word. It is this type of poetic-musical
singing and the way of realizing this that is punctually
performed by Nella Anfuso in this extraordinary collection
that runs through the entire history of the great School of the
Italian song. The sonorous anthology here proposed is a kind
of indispensable handbook for anyone that wants to get
near to the historic truth of the song that has its
origins in the superb Courts of the Italian Four-hundreds,
continues in the Medicean Florence with the Camerata de’ Bardi,
perfecting this with Monteverdi, propagating in the Opera
Theatres and Cantatas of Six-Seven-Hundred, to arrive at first
Romanticism, fatal moment for the prevailing Wagnerian movement
and verism.
It is a question of fusion for the
neo-Platonic Renaissance aesthetics, it is not a balanced
relationship, but a union, meaning only one thing:
“musical values in words and not relationships between sound and
words (…) assigning to the poetry-music, an expressive oneness,
the value of an ethic act (art capable of producing ethos) (…)
following Damone we have music of the language, that is Melody
in a Platonic sense, the phonetic expression of thoughts”.
(1) The musician-singer and improviser is born out of this
context and is a phenomena typically Italian: to sing ad
lyram or ad citharam…, are also indicative the many
pictorial representations of Orfeo singer with the lyra da
braccio (one is also in the arcade of the Villa Medicea in
Artimino, where the premises of the Foundation Centro Studi
Rinascimento Musicale and the Museum “Annibale Gianuario”
are found). One of the examples in this period is the Florentine
environment of Lorenzo the Magnificent, who sings together with
Marsilio Ficino, Domenico Benivieni, Antonio Naldi and Baccio
Ugolini (the last of which, considered a great singer who
accompanied himself with the lyra da braccio, was the principal
interpreter of Orfeo by Angelo Poliziano, in 1480 at
Mantua). The poet Vincenzo Calmeta, operating in the court of
the Magnificent, testifies to the popular costume on behalf of
the poets and humanists to sing their own verses accompanied by
a stringed instrument; Calmeta states: “sono da essere
stimati di sommo giudizio coloro che cantando mettono tutto lo
sforzo in esprimer bene le parole (…) facendo non gli affetti e
le sentenze della musica, ma la musica delle sentenze e degli
affetti esser ministra” (We appraise immensely the singers that
strain themselves to pronounce well the words…
so that the
affections and the sentences should predominate and not be
subservient to the music, but rather that the music should be
subordinate to the words and the emotions).
So triumphs a type of music based on the clear perception of the
words, which are pronounced/sung by a sole cantor. One of
the first examples of virtuoso, contested by the courts, is
Pietro Bono “del chitarrino”, that in the second half of
four-hundred, affirms an improvised style of which,
unfortunately, little has remained, only a few elaborations
converge in heterogeneous styles like Frottola,
Strambotto, Giustiniana, Canzone,
Barzelletta, Ode, Serenata, Villotta,
Villanella and other minor forms, experiences in which
the relationship between poets and musicians are very close,
indeed so concentrated to be the same person, as the poet -
singers Bernardo Accolti and Gasparo Visconti.
The rediscovery of the classical world
implemented by the humanists proposes again with force the idea
of a more direct musical communication, entrusted with
“simple” means, able to implicate the listener to the
sweetness of the sound and clearness of the contents in
the text. We see therefore how this methodology of song at
the Court of Gonzaga in Mantua (where Anfuso had set her
splendid DVD Monteverdi, Poiesis) and that of Isabella
d’Este in Ferrara, and in the Florentine court of Medici,
anticipate stylistic features that will assert themselves during
the Cinquecento. We must remember and resume what has already
been stated, that in Mantua in 1425 Vittorino da Feltre had
founded an important humanistic Schola where the music
was taught, and that at Ferrara, the Duke Ercole I in 1471 had
founded a musical Chapel among the finest organized in Europe
(only the Chapel in the Dome of Milan and the Schola
Acolytorum of Verona could compete, in Italy, with the
Chapel of Ferrara). From the Schola of Verona emerge most
of the protagonists of the Italian four-hundred renewal, from
Tromboncino, Cara, Pesenti until Martinengo, Ruffo, Asola,
Ingegneri etc. This method of singing excludes the
falsettista and insists on the perfect fusion of
registers, on the pureness and homogeneity of
emission, on the declamation of the text. It is a way
to sing that, in the first Four-hundred, privileges the texture
“of the chest”, but already in the late Four-hundred had
arrived at a sonorous fullness and refinement of “legato”,
that will find complete realization in the century after in the
expressive song in the style of Caccini.
The interpretation by Anfuso in Zephiro
spira and Tu dormi by Tromboncino, as in Ben venga
Maggio on words by Poliziano, author of Fabula di Orfeo
that is considered the prototype of the future forms in music
for theatre, are perfect examples on how to confront the
relationship between word-sound that constitutes the foundation
of these new musical aesthetics, where the music has to be
“transparent”, in a way that renders intelligible the text.
The creation of sense is the higher aim.
The recognition of the musicality in the
word, that, as Doni writes “has not been realized since
after the Greek-Latin antiquity”, it is one of the strong
ideals of the Renaissance that, knowing Plato, Aristotle,
Filodemo, Archita, Cicero, Aristosseno, possess the
documentation to understand how poetry and music were all one.
To arrive at these objectives we utilise antique metrics, from
Bernardo Tasso to Cesare Monteverdi, to Tolomei, Trissino,
Chiabrera…until the efforts of Pléiade. It is clear, therefore,
that the recourse to Greek origins or to bring to light other
antique stylistic features, is not sufficient to create an
unicum concept-word- sound (it is for this reason that
Pléiade remains suspended at half way). The research in the
sonority of the word, in the ideals of the poets-cantors and
monody, in conformity with the teachings of the Greeks, is
studied with attention from a technical point a view, for the
first time, in the Dialogo della musica antica et della
moderna by Vincenzo Galilei, that writes a thesis less known
but never the less of the same importance, Discorso intorno
all’uso delle dissonanze, text studied and investigated for
the first time by Annibale Gianuario and states that Galilei
“intends to investigate the soul of the harmony, that is on
concepts of the words with regards to a phonetic-semantic
concept of these, in contraposition and also to completion of
the cognition about the body of harmony that represents the
technical context of the ordinary procedure of different sounds
and voices. The essential point of the disquisition by Galilei
is the research of expressive reason of the harmonic matter that
expressive result manifests itself in the Dissonance; the
treatment of which and use are little used by the musicians of
the First practice, drawn above all to the themes of the
Consonance (…) existence of a cultural trend that with Cipriano
de Rore from Vicentino, Gesualdo da Venosa, Giulio Caccini,
Jacopo Peri and Monteverdi refers to the Greek-Latin Poetics”
(2). Monteverdi will use these dissonances for the
dynamic manifestations of his music, realizing the Platonic
vision of the concept expressed in sound.
The performances that Nella Anfuso treats us
to in the Canzone of Machiavelli, Quanto sia lieto, in
the IV Intermedio by Giovanni de’ Bardi, Miseri
habitator, from the Comedy “La Pellegrina” by
Scipione Bargagli, the Hymn by Francesca Caccini, Iesu Corona
Virginum, so like the works of Jacopo Peri Tutto‘l dì
piango, and of various Tuscan authors Mirate in sul
mattin (Piero Benedetti), Tu piangi al mio partire (Lorenzo
Allegri), Oimè ché troppo è vero (Vincenzo Calestani),
È morto il tuo signore (Giovanbattista da Gagliano),
costitute beautiful examples of the Tuscan Monody, to which have
to be added the madrigals O Primavera e Aura soave
by Luzzasco Luzzaschi. We can well perceive how in the singing
by Nella Anfuso the idea that the text wants to express, is
realized in the adherence of the music to the words: the
messa di voce (the augmenting and diminishing of the voice),
the exclamation languid or humorous, the cascading
(volatine), the expressive effects of legato and the
trill (imitating the bird’s song, so Caccini would say) and
all the other elements that constitute the Sprezzatura
(modulating free movement to follow the arsis and the thesis of
the word) they are then in function of the poetic
expression and can only be realized if one is in possession of a
natural “sonorous voice” obtained by the perfect fusion
of the two registers. In “modulating the spoken syllable”,
as Caccini wants, we must conserve the tonic accents and vocal
characteristics.
The Renaissance Song is characterized
essentially by a praxis of the diminution, but, thanks to
the Florentines and in particular to Giulio Romano, undertake a
new direction in the field of passeggiare: “the
diminution is enriched by elements like the exclamation, the
trill prepared or non, the accents etc. (…) the monody , born
from the dictates of the new aesthetics, presents a richness and
variety of accents really exceptional, varieties that from a
performing point of view are realized with dynamic liberty (sprezzatura)
and of expression (phonetic accentuation). These vocal effects
find their explanation, the existence of a chromatic minor
semitone of which speaks Doni or the hardness on a harmonic
level” (3). In a letter dated 1633 Monteverdi explains the
difference between harmony founded on the reason of the First
Practice where the text is adapted to the music, and that
based on the Second Practice that is the realization of
the sound of the emotive diction of the poetic expression in
which, following the indications of Plato have to be chosen for
their spiritual value. From this difference was initiated the
argument of Artusi, that in 1600 had published L’Artusi
ovvero delle imperfetioni della moderna musica, in which he
accused Monteverdi of “procedures that offend the ear”,
because realized not in the name of reason purely musical, but
in the name of that of the text, therefore for Artusi the music
had its own rules, meanwhile for Monteverdi the “perfection
of the modern music consists in following the oration” (so
he writes in the Preface of the Fifth book of Madrigals,
in 1607). Many times underlined by Annibale Gianuario, great
expert of this period, for Monteverdi the Second Practice
is therefore a return to the concepts of the music as the
realization of the poetry in their unitary three elements: the
significance, rhythm and the sound, elements that
the musician moulds following the representation of the
affections.
In his study on the Modalità e realtà
fonetica nel “Lamento di Arianna” di Monteverdi (4),
Gianuario makes a interesting consideration on the harmony and
states: “we could analyse the modality of the “Lamento” based
on the continued bass, that is considering indicative the final
of the bass itself (…) we do not think this a credible solution,
in so far as the modality is determined by the verse and the
continued bass is to be considered of particular “harmonic”
revelation highlighted by the diction that also determines these
harmonic components that Monteverdi notates on the bass”. It
is therefore the individualization of the vocalic and
syllabic sound that determines the expression and of consequence
the modality (as in the music of the antique Greeks recalled by
the humanists); the mode therefore had to be determined
by the sonority of the phrase, in a phonetic semantic unity,
articulated with accents and timber. It is the how in the
way to express the emotion that the text provokes that
determines the mese and finalis that at last is
the way to be of the harmony.
The new proposition of the Lamento
d’Arianna, of the most significant moments of the female
personages of Orfeo, that is Ninfa, Speranza,
Messaggera and Proserpina, of the Lamento di
Penelope recuperated in the philological musicological and
dramatic truthfulness, and of the Due Lettere Amorose,
in which only the first “Se i languidi miei sguardi” is
presented to the hearer, the new proposition therefore of
Monteverdi to the exact awareness of the aesthetics of the
time, render these CD’s even more precious, also
because the modern editions of compositions by Monteverdi betray
often the original work, setting in the harmonic system outlined
after Monteverdi’s epoch: ignoring the poiesis and the
musical notation of Monteverdi, and giving life to a vocal
interpretation that does not understand the phonetic flections
derived from the verbal expression and producing historic
falsehoods. We believe today to know Monteverdi, but in reality
on account of to many historic falsifications, we listen to a
different music, adapted to the mode of early music.
From a singing point of view, the extreme
pureness and fragility of the poetic- sound requires the same
perfection of emission that permits the realization of the
spiccato (typical of the virtuous execution) that
needs to underline well every sound-syllable and to realize this
pronunciation we need to create this sound utilizing to
the maximum the upper-laryngeal resonators that are
situated in the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinus, hardly
heard of today. As Nella Anfuso writes in her most complete book
on the art of Italian song (5) the total resonance
therefore (the sonorous voice of Caccini) is possible
only through the mechanism of the appoggio that permits
the fusion of the two registers and realizes the only
register and therefore the homogeneity and the
pureness of intonation (a few facial conformations can help
the good resonance). There is a great “secret” to arrive
at a great vocal perfection and it is to consider the existence
of a unique point in the support for all the sounds
of the musical scale (no antique Italian text, which is
significant, mentions the so called “passages of registers”).
Besides, the emission has to be realized on the breath, so
creating a live vibrant sound and permits the portar
la voce actuating the particular chromatic effects
typical of the affectionate song. The crescere and
scemare of the voice, so like the exclamation, messa di
voce and other effects have to be based on excellent
respiration.
The Didone by Cavalli in which we have
superb interpretation of the scene of the suicide
“Porgetemi la spada” is a work that can be considered the
most similar in style to Monteverdi by this great pupil. The
dramatic excitement typical of the Second Practice finds
in Nella Anfuso an extraordinary tragic actress. On an
aesthetic level the “representation of the affections”
requires an investigative style, penetrating the world and
exalts the numerous possibilities of declamation. The natural
expressiveness makes practice and wise use of the
pauses that have to follow the breathing and give meaning to
the sensibility of the interpreter. The representative style
is not such because it realizes a scenic vision of the text, but
because it represents the affections, emotionally modulating the
voice, therefore as Gianuario states, “we are far away from
the Melodrama and Operismo and very far away from the virtuoso
song for its own ends for which we can invent diminution,
elaborated accompaniments and…. orchestrations” (6).
Also in the Venetian Canzoni of seven
hundred, of a popular character, remain traces of the higher
School. Venice is a city very rich in music where “they sing
in the square, in the streets and on the canals. The merchants
sing showing their wares, the workers sing living their job, the
gondoliers sing waiting for their masters”, so described
Goldoni the singing climate in his Mémoires (published at
Paris in 1787). The anonymous Venetian Songs of the XVIII
century are based on a vocal writing that put into evidence the
typical qualities of the song in that period: “pureness and
lightness of emission, perfection of the intonation, extension
and homogeneity” (7). Quei oci me fa guerra e
Sento che’l cuor me manca are very beautiful Venetian Songs.
In the period of
Vivaldi, the fundamentals of vocalism do not move away from the
basics above mentioned, even in the so called “golden era”,
particularly virtuosic of the song, the fusion of the two
registers of chest and head voice create a sole register (excluding
therefore the falsettisti): “if the union of the registers is
not perfect the voice will be of more registers and consequently
losses its beauty”, writes Tosi in his Opinioni
de’ Cantori Antichi e Moderni and states: “il Maestro
deve insegnar quel moto leggerissimo della voce in cui le note
che lo compongono siano tutte articolate con ugual proporzione e
moderato distaccamento, affinchè il Passaggio non sia nè troppo
attaccato, nè battuto soverchio (…) tutta la bellezza del
Passaggio consiste nell’esser perfettamente intonato, battuto,
granito, eguale, rotto e veloce (…) chi ha un bellissimo Trillo
gode sempre il vantaggio di condursi senza disgusto alla
Cadenze” (The Maestro has to teach the very light way of the
voice in such a way that the notes are articulated with
proportion and moderated detachment (…) All
the beauty of this passage constitutes in being perfectly
intonated, measured, detached, similar, broken and quick (…) he
who has a beautiful Trill always enjoys the advantage to behave
without shame in the Cadences).
The Trill is considered the predominant element of vocalism (the
25 trills by Farinello on a sole breath are a
fantastic example and today Anfuso is the sole
person that knows how to reproduce this). In the case of Vivaldi
we need to remember that his music had been conceived for the
virtuoso singers of the Hospital of the Pietà (we know the names
of a few); for them are written the Airs, in three part form, in
which in the first part the singer has to perform simply the
Air, except for a few appoggiaturas and trills; in the second
part they begin to embellish with thrift; the final section (Da
Capo) had to be embellished in abundantiam. The
virtuoso elements have to be rigorously performed after having
studied the documents of this period that tell us how to
interpret the messe di voce, simple and double trills
raising and falling, the turns and appoggiaturas, the
volatinas and the cantar di sbalzo, agilità spiccata and
agilità martellata the various Farinello, Faustina Bordoni
and Cuzzoni etc ..: “This type of agility is very difficult
to perform (…) it is necessary to hold the breath, and be
capable of letting go and holding it again without effort; one
must possess a very clear intonation, so that every note
martellata is distinctly intonated” Mancini wrote with
regards to the agilità martellata (8). Once again, it is
the perfect symbiosis of the registers that literally determines
the Italian vocal art, “therefore the proposal of this
vocalism on behalf of voices non operational in perfect fusion,
as that of the falsettisti today in vogue under the name of
counter-tenor, haute-contre etc., has no sense on a vocal
aesthetical and historical level”.(9)
Of Vivaldi, the Airs taken from the
Cantate and Motets together with the Hallelujah,
final part of “O qui coeli”, that Nella Anfuso has
chosen, following an homogeneous line and perfectly documented
by the great School of Singing in Italy in the XV-XVIII
centuries, are the continuous representation of the vocal
aesthetic principles also in religious circle, even though we
must recognize that the sacred interpreted by the composers of
opera is sui generis, often made spectacular as in
processions.
In Rome at the Barberini theatre in the
Palace of the Quattro Fontane, constructed on the project of
Maderno and Bernini, is the historic site where Roman Opera was
born. Nephews of pope Urbano VIII, the Barberini assume many
times plentiful financial obligations to organize opera
performances, genre that encounters the favour of the Roman
aristocracy, stimulating the preference for the spectacular pomp
and for the absorbing contents, mythological and religious.
Supported by Cardinal Rospigliosi (from 1667 Pope with the name
Clemente IX), the Roman Opera maintains for a long time the
characteristics of the court spectacle, organized above all for
the patrician fests, during the Carnival period.
In his
Rappresentazione di Anima et di Corpo,
Emilio de’ Cavalieri recommends that “the
singer needs a beautiful voice, well tuned, held well and sings
with affection and in particular expresses well the words, well
pronounced”. On the same
aesthetical and technical level also the Roman Ottavio Durante
that, in his Avvertimenti ai Cantori (1608),
expatiates upon how to perform the affectionate singing: “the
singers have to understand well what they are singing (…) to
sing slowly, to sing with grace and to pronounce distinctly the
words”. Pietro Della Valle, in a document of 1640 entitled
Della musica della età nostra says of the voices:
“our teachers, do not use subtle artifices, but base themselves
on what is song (…) the falsettisti cannot be compared with the
natural voices of the sopranos or the castrati”. To exalt
the natural expressiveness, obtained by the fusion of the two
registers, that around the middle of the XVI century in the
churches the falsettisti are eliminated.
Tenaglia, with
Se fosse così, as in other
environments, but internally to the same vocal aesthetics,
Scarlatti with the Airs taken from the Cantatas
Rimirai and
Bella Rosa, Porpora, Farinello and Riccardo Broschi
demonstrate, through the interpretation of the correct
historical and aesthetical use by Anfuso, as today (at least
from the seventies) from a technical point of view, the basic
problem is that the singers do not know how to utilize
the upper resonances.
The great Italian school from Maffei to
Caccini, to Tosi, Fedi, Pistocchi, Brivio, Peli, Redi, Amadori
until Porpora keeps still firm those principles that
Giambattista Mancini reassumed in his
Riflessioni pratiche sul Canto figurato
and that is: the
acquisition of the portamento of the voice that is the
passage, binding the sounds, one note to the other; messa di
voce that is the action of attaching one note on pianissimo,
augmenting the sonority until fortissimo and to return to
pianissimo utilizing always the same breath and terminating, if
the expression demands, with a trill; the trill (that
has to be equal, beaten, detached and moderately
quick); the appoggiatura simple or double is the
accentuation on one or more notes held on descending (one tone)
and ascending (semitone); the mordent is a real note in
which the repetition is given to the inferior note of semitone;
the cadence is a very important execution and is an
expressive creation of the interpreter. Mancini writes that
“the voices, even though adaptable to the expression, cannot
perform anything else but the song of the notes and words”.
It is a very pertinent observation that does not leave any doubt
on the reality of the song in the centuries that interest us, in
opposition to the song that from the XIX century will be prone
to the Veristic expression, following an aesthetic
completely different from the “representation of affections”.
Already in the calling to the “verisimilitude” of the
cultural Enlightenment we have seen the passage from the myth to
epos, a change that will have progressive repercussions
on the dramaturgy and on the way to describe through the song
personages and situations. We loose contact with the word in
favour of the scene, the subtle emotive transfigurations
expressed by musical “sayings” become crass sentimental
shouting, the vocal refinements become vulgar, following a
popular sense of misunderstanding. We stray from principles that
have their roots in the great School that begins with Caccini
and we come close to the Veristic formulation that is based on
aesthetical strong signals, very different to those that move
the affections, and even more so with Wagner.
The great School still persists until the
first Romanticism, as demonstrates the text in 1847 by Manuel
Garcia, Traité complet de l’art du
chant (work in two volumes, the
second almost unknown in Italy!) but, simultaneously, had began
her decline, indeed Garcia subdivides the voice into three
registers! Indeed Rossini in 1858 verifies the absence of
singers suitable to the operas of Cimarosa, Bellini and his own.
A few years later the lament of Rossini is repeated, in a letter
to the son of Vaccai in 1864. The same Verdi, many times,
declares that his song is based on the golden rules of the
antique school. Bellini results being a sort of watershed, but
he is also part of the great school.
“The vocal ideal of Mozart, that between 1774
and 1775 had studied in London with the castrato Giovanni
Manzuoli, completely mirrors the good Italian School; in his
letters he affirms that which counts in vocalism the pureness
and homogeneity” (10), or those
qualities that permit the “spiccato” of which Burney and
Chopin speak. The fusion of registers and the
fioritura are indispensable characteristics to perform
correctly Mozart, but also Bellini, Donizetti, Mercadante,
Paganini and the Opera composers at the beginning of
Eight-hundred until Angelica Catalani, before that practice of
grand cri
in the French style (that in 1839 horrified
Liszt), the Romantic Verism and Wagnerian style asserted itself.
The fiorituras of the Operas by Bellini, the
cadences in those by Donizetti and the correct
messa di voce
are realized by singers like Crescentini, Rubini, Cinti-Damoreau,
Malibran, Catalani etc. that demonstrate virtuosity and
expressive capabilities.
Nella Anfuso has been capable of preserving
the expressive song
of Italian School, thanks to her youthful
studies with Guglielmina Rosati Ricci, that had studied with
Cotogni and that, through
oral tradition,
mastered again those principles in
the antique style of singing that
we had lost (11). Even more reason today, after the disaster
brought about in the last thirty years by
Early music, it
is necessary a recall to the correctness, if we do not want to
risk irreparable damage, in the disappearance of the great
Italian School of Singing. We must again fight with great force
that which Malipiero called “the
rectifiers of antique music”. In
the last years, with respect to the first Nine-hundred, the
understanding is better from a historical, aesthetical and
technical level; it is a matter of documents and reflections
published by the Foundation Centro Studi Rinascimento Musicale,
but above all by the irreplaceable Collection of
recordings (CD, video and DVD) of the sonorous voice by
Nella Anfuso, all this is deliberately ignored or cynically
subdued to personal interests. The continuous misunderstanding
made of Early music derive not only through ignorance but
principally are realized on purpose, following a commercial
logic.
We need to work on important musical documents, following the
line of the great School, that can be a guide to every
conscientious singer. The hope is that we recuperate, with
honesty and rigor, the great traditional Italian song, so giving
an indispensable point of reference to scholars and students,
analysing and reporting the musical facts with those cultural
and especially aesthetical, defending what Monteverdi
called the
just. |
